home

toc =Alternative Vehicles= To live a sustainable lifestyle we all have to think about how we live and what we could improve in our life to live more “green”. The way we commute from place to place has had a big influence on our carbon foot print. As of the present our cars are fueled by petroleum gasoline. The problem lies in our dependence on this resource that is so depleted it is soon to run out. Our job now is to look for alternatives. Though we all are somewhat willing to change our lifestyles to help our ecological situation, transportation is one of the many things our society has become accustomed to having. If we cannot change our dependence on cars we must find alternatives for the gasoline which has become limited.

The answer for this question could be: Alternative Vehicles. If we develop technologies which would let run our cars without petroleum, we could change our world and the way we drive. The following three described technologies are different ways the cars of the future would function. All of these technologies are very attainable! The reason for that is that those three technologies are kinds of electric vehicle. These electric vehicles no longer function because of combustion, they function on the batteries which hold enough power to operate a car for hours. Because they work off of the energy of the battery, they produce little to zero amounts of CO2 or other greenhouse gases which increase the effect of anthropogenic greenhouse effect and global warming. If we all were to drive electric vehicles, in the future, we all could reduce our ecological footprint and improve our lifestyle to a sustainable one.

=**1. Hybrid Electric Vehicle**=

Hybrid electric vehicles(HEV) have an internal combustion engine and electric motor. These vehicles are powered by an alternative fuel or a conventional fuel, such as gasoline, and a battery, which is charged by regenerative braking. The extra power provided by the electric motor allows for a smaller engine, resulting in better fuel economy without sacrificing performance. So HEV combine the benefits of high fuel economy and low emissions with the power and range of conventional vehicles. Although HEVs are often more expensive than similar conventional vehicles, some cost may be recovered through fuel savings, a light-duty HEV federal tax credit, or state incentives. A hybrid electric vehicle does not require a plug to charge the battery. Instead, it uses regenerative braking and the internal combustion engine to charge. The vehicle captures energy normally lost during braking by using the electric motor as a generator and storing the captured energy in the battery. The energy from the battery provides extra power during acceleration.



**1.1 Configurations of Hybrids**
HEVs can be either mild or full hybrids, and full hybrids can be designed in either a series or parallel configuration. There are different ways to combine the power from the electric motor and the engine.
 * Mild hybrids**—also called micro hybrids—use a battery and electric motor to help power the vehicle and can allow the engine to shut off when the vehicle stops (such as at traffic lights or in stop-and-go traffic), further improving fuel economy. Mild hybrid systems cannot power the vehicle using electricity alone. These vehicles cost less than full hybrids but provide lower fuel economy than full hybrids.
 * Full hybrids** have more-powerful electric motors and larger batteries which can drive the vehicle on just electric power for short distances and at low speeds. These systems cost more than mild hybrids but provide better fuel economy.
 * Plug in hybrids** have a larger battery pack than hybrid electric vehicles. This makes it possible to drive using only electricity for some distance (about 10 to 40 miles. Plug-in hybrid electric vehicle batteries can be charged by an outside electric power source, by the internal combustion engine, or through regenerative braking.
 * Parallel hybrids**—the most common HEV design—have the engine and the electric motor connected to the wheels through mechanical coupling. Both the electric motor and the internal combustion engine drive the wheels directly.
 * Series hybrids**, where the electric motor drives the wheels, these are more common in plug-in hybrid electric vehicles.


 * Animation: How does it work?**

Animation


 * Interesting Video:**

media type="youtube" key="mHXmHczo-1o?fs=1" height="385" width="640" align="center"

=**2. Electric Vehicle**=

All-electric vehicles will have a shorter range per charge than conventional vehicles have when they fill up with gas. The custom-order, all-electric Tesla Roadster has a 220-mile range while less-expensive vehicles under development are targeting a 100-mile range. According to the U.S. Department of Transportation Federal Highway Administration, 100 miles is sufficient for over 90% of all household vehicle trips in the United States.
 * All-electric vehicles (EVs)** use a battery to store the electrical energy that powers the motor. EVs are sometimes referred to as battery electric vehicles (BEVs). EV batteries are charged by plugging the vehicle into an electric power source. Although the electricity production might contribute to air pollution, all-electric vehicles are measured as zero-emission vehicles because their motors produce no exhaust or emissions during the drive.



**2.1 Batteries**
The newest plug-in hybrids and all-electric vehicles will use lithium-ion batteries (above) rather than the nickel-metal hydride batteries used in most hybrid electric vehicles. Energy storage systems, usually batteries, are essential for electric drive vehicles. Batteries must have a high energy-storage capacity per unit weight and per unit cost. Because the battery is the most expensive component in most electric drive systems, reducing the cost of the battery is crucial to producing affordable electric drive vehicles. The following energy storage systems are used in hybrid electric vehicles, plug-in hybrid electric vehicles, and all-electric vehicles. Lithium-ion batteries are currently used in most portable consumer electronics such as cell phones and laptops because of their high energy per unit mass. They also have a high power-to-weight ratio, high energy efficiency, good high-temperature performance, and low self-discharge. Some components of lithium-ion batteries can be recycled. Most near-term plug-in hybrid electric vehicles and all-electric vehicles will use lithium-ion batteries. Development is ongoing to reduce cost and improve calendar and life cycle. Nickel-metal hydride batteries, used routinely in computer and medical equipment, offer reasonable specific energy and specific power capabilities. Nickel-metal hydride batteries have a much longer life cycle than lead-acid batteries and are safe and abuse tolerant. These batteries have been used successfully in all-electric vehicles and are widely used in hybrid electric vehicles. The main challenges with nickel-metal hydride batteries are their high cost, high self-discharge and heat generation at high temperatures, and the need to control hydrogen loss. Lead-acid batteries can be designed to be high power and are inexpensive, safe, and reliable. However, low specific energy, poor cold-temperature performance, and short calendar and life cycle impede their use. Advanced high-power lead-acid batteries are being developed, but these batteries are not currently used in most electric drive vehicles other than for ancillary loads in some cases. Lithium-polymer batteries with high specific energy, initially developed for electric vehicle applications, also can provide high specific power for hybrid electric vehicle applications. Like lithium-ion batteries, they could become commercially viable if the cost were lowered and life cycle improved. Ultracapacitors store energy in a polarized liquid between an electrode and an electrolyte.The Energy storage capacity increases as the liquid's surface area increases. Ultracapacitors provide vehicles with additional power during acceleration and hill climbing and help recover braking energy. They are useful as secondary energy-storage devices in electric drive vehicles because they help electrochemical batteries level load power. Additional electronics are required to maintain a constant voltage due to low energy density. The battery-recycling market is currently small. Recycling exists for small lithium-ion batteries, such as battery packs from cell phones, laptops, and other electronics. As the market grows, the recycling infrastructure will likely grow with it (as it did for lead-acid batteries in the past driven by hazardous waste regulatory requirements). Lithium batteries are slightly difficult to handle, but procedures for recycling do exist and can be cost effective. The components of nickel-metal hydride batteries used in most electric drive vehicles are recyclable, but a recycling infrastructure is not yet in place. Batteries could be resold for secondary use, making them more valuable before eventual recycling. For long-distance travel, where fast charging is not available, battery swapping could be the solution. Better Place is developing a battery-leasing business model and infrastructure so drivers can pull into battery-switching stations and exchange a depleted battery with a fully charged one. Use of battery swap stations requires a vehicle that has been designed with a swappable battery pack.
 * Lithium-Ion Batteries**
 * Nickel-Metal Hydride Batteries**
 * Lead-Acid Batteries**
 * Lithium-Polymer Batteries**
 * Ultracapacitors**


 * Interesting Video:**

media type="youtube" key="pVwtwhvmK0I?fs=1" height="385" width="480" align="center"

=**3. Fuel Cell Vehicles**=

Fuel cell vehicles, powered by hydrogen, have the potential to revolutionize our transportation system. Fuel cell vehicles use a completely different propulsion system than conventional vehicles, which can be two to three times more efficient. Unlike conventional vehicles, they produce no harmful exhaust emissions—their only emission is water. Other benefits include increasing U.S. energy security and strengthening the economy. Fuel cell vehicles are still at an early stage of development. Research and development efforts are bringing them closer to commercialization. Like all-electric vehicles, fuel cell vehicles use electricity to power motors located near the vehicle's wheels. In contrast to electric vehicles, fuel cell vehicles produce their primary electricity using a fuel cell. The fuel cell is powered by filling the fuel tank with hydrogen. The most common type of fuel cell for vehicle applications is the polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM) fuel cell. In a PEM fuel cell, an electrolyte membrane is sandwiched between a positive electrode (cathode) and a negative electrode (anode). Hydrogen is introduced to the anode and oxygen to the cathode. The hydrogen molecules travel through the membrane to the cathode but not before the membrane strips the electrons off the hydrogen molecules. The electrons are forced to travel through an external circuit to recombine with the hydrogen ions on the cathode side, where the hydrogen ions, electrons, and oxygen molecules combine to form water. The flow of electrons through the external circuit forms the electrical current needed to power a vehicle. Fuel cell vehicles can be fueled with pure hydrogen gas stored directly on the vehicle or extracted from a secondary fuel—such as methanol, ethanol, or natural gas—that carries hydrogen. These secondary fuels must first be converted into hydrogen gas by onboard device called a reformer. Fuel cell vehicles fueled with pure hydrogen emit no pollutants, only water and heat. Vehicles that use secondary fuels and a reformer produce only small amounts of air pollutants. Fuel cell vehicles can be equipped with other advanced technologies to increase efficiency, such as regenerative braking systems, which capture the energy lost during braking and store it in a large battery. Very simple schematic of a fuel cell vehicle showing an electric motor attached to the wheels at the front of the vehicle and, progressing toward the rear of the vehicle, a PCU (motor controller), battery, fuel cell stack, and hydrogen tank. To the side of the vehicle is an air compressor.





Animation
 * Animation: How does it work?**


 * Interesting Video:**

media type="youtube" key="3jRVnyvA2o8?fs=1" height="385" width="640" align="center"

=**4. Comparison of the different technologies**=

In the following Table you can see the CO2-Emission and the cost when you drive with different technologies. If you compare a conventional cell vehicle with a electric vehicle, you can save more then 2 times of CO2.
 * ** Emissions and Fuel Cost for a 100-Mile Trip ** ||
 * **Vehicle**
 * (compact sedans)** || **Greenhouse Gas Emissions**
 * (pounds of CO2 equivalent)** || **Total Fuel Cost**
 * (U.S. Dollars)** ||  ||
 * Conventional || 75 lb CO2 || $9.36 ||  ||
 * Hybrid Electric || 52 lb CO2 || $6.46 ||  ||
 * Plug-in Hybrid Electric || 44 lb CO2 || $4.84 ||  ||
 * All-Electric || 32 lb CO2 || $2.40 ||  ||

=5. Conclusion= In conclusion these three described technologies are sustainable and are a better solution than the combustion of petroleum and gas. These Hybrid Electric Vehicles are the solution to reducing our carbon footprint, hopefully in the next few years other technologies will be found to better these vehicles. We also hope to see that these cars will no longer need petroleum to function. One of the inconveniences of these Hybrid Electric cars is that the battery does not run as long in distance as a normal car. Customers may not like that they would have to stop for long periods of time to charge their battery. We hope that cars like these will soon become standard and with the change from the ordinary car to the Hybrid Electric car, we could change gas stations to Battery Swap Stations. We think the scientist will improve these technologies very quickly during the next few years. So the technology of the batteries will be much better and so those vehicles could also run for longer distances like the actual cars do.

One of the only downsides of these Hybrid Electric cars is the energy which is needed to charge the batteries has to be produced. This energy mostly comes from coal and nuclear power plants. Those two ways of energy production are not as sustainable as alternative energy plants like solar, hydroelectric and wind power plants are. If the energy of the world would be produced in alternative power plants we could drive electric vehicle without any emission. That is a good option for a “green” and sustainable lifestyle in the future!